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ESA Land I /1J Management Ray Weiss January 2009 Page 4 bends northward, and the northern boundary is roughly half way between the Calaveras and Mokelumne Rivers. The Yokuts may have been fairly recent arrivals in the San Joaquin Valley,perhaps being pushed out of the foothills about 500 years ago. Population estimates for the Northern Valley Yokuts vary from 11,000 to more than 31,000 individuals. Populations were concentrated along waterways and on the more hospitable east side of the San Joaquin River. Villages, or clusters of villages,made up"miniature tribes"(tribelets)lead by headmen.The number of tribelets is estimated at 30 to 40;each tribe spoke their own dialect of the Yokuts language.Combined with the Southern Valley Yokuts and the Foothill Yokuts dialects,these tongues formed the Yokutsan linguistic family of the Penutian Stock(Shipley 1978). Principal settlements were located on the tops of low mounds,on or near the banks of the larger watercourses. Settlements were composed of single family dwellings,sweathouses,and ceremonial assembly chambers.Dwellings were small and lightly constructed,semi-subterranean and oval.The public structures were large and earth covered. Northern Valley Yokut settlements tended to remain in place for long periods of time due to the abundance of riverine resources in the area. Subsistence among the Northern Valley Yokuts revolved around the waterways and marshes of the lower San Joaquin Valley. Fishing with dragnets,harpoons,and hook and line yielded salmon,white sturgeon,river perch, and other species of edible fish. Waterfowl and small game attracted to the water also provided a source of protein. The contribution of big game to the diet was probably minimal.Vegetal staples included acorns,rule roots,and seeds. Goods not available locally were obtained through trade.Paiute and Shoshone groups on the eastern side of the Sierra were suppliers of obsidian(volcanic glass used for tools). Shell beads and mussels were obtained from Salinan and Coastanoan groups. Trading relations with Miwok groups yielded baskets and bows and arrows. Overland transport was facilitated by a network of trails, and rule rafts were used for water transport. Most Northern Valley Yokuts groups had their first contact with Europeans in the early 1800s, when the Spanish began exploring the Delta. The gradual erosion of Yokuts culture began during the mission period. Epidemics of European diseases played a large role in the decimation of the native population. With the secularization of the mission and the release of neophytes,tribal and territorial adjustments were set in motion. People returned to other groups,and a number of polyglot"tribes"were formed.The final blow to the aboriginal population came with the Gold Rush and its aftermath. In the rush to the southern mines,native populations were pushed out of the way,and out of their existing territories. Ex-miners settling in the fertile valley applied further pressure to the native groups,and altered the landforms and waterways of the valley. Many Yokuts resorted to wage labor on farms and ranches.Others were settled on land set aside for them on the Fresno and Tule River Reserves.