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california Water Today 111 development of the large interregional water projects that form the backbone of California’s water infrastructure. State and federal environmental laws enacted beginning in the late 1960s have fundamentally reshaped the context of almost all water management decisions. The absence of legislative action has also left its mark. Notably, the failure of California’s legislature to include groundwater in the modern Water Code in 1913 and its subsequent failure to regulate groundwater have resulted in the fragmented and often ineffective management of this resource. Over time, state legislation also has shaped the institutional framework of California’s decentralized water management system by establishing the author- ity of cities, counties, and the various forms of special districts that operate in California (Chapter 1; Hundley 2001). Over the past three decades, most state water legislation has sought to require or facilitate action by these decentralized entities (Table 2.7). A variety of laws aim to improve local planning and coordination, and some impose conservation efforts on local entities. In the 1980s, a suite of laws was enacted to facilitate the transfer of water between local agencies and water users through water markets. Beginning in the early 1990s, a series of laws mandating the use of low-flow plumbing devices and appliances have also targeted water conservation by end users. Although local districts often object to such measures, state-imposed requirements can make it easier for them to withstand local opposi- tion. For instance, 2004 legislation requiring that all utilities install water meters and begin billing by the amount of water used targeted many unmetered Central Valley communities, where local opposition to metering had prevented reform. These laws have facilitated incremental improvements in water management at the local level. In recent decades, however, the legislature has had less success instituting broader changes that will be necessary to meet future management challenges. For instance, two laws enacted as part of the 2009 water policy pack- age—on groundwater monitoring and on water rights enforcement—addressed crucial areas of reform but were significantly watered down in response to opposition from local stakeholders. Administrative agencies Over time, state and federal legislation has also established state and federal agencies concerned with different aspects of California’s water system (Table 2.8). These agencies regulate and support the actions of local entities, and many also manage large water supply, flood, and environmental management projects. Some state and federal agencies also collect and analyze data to improve the technical and scientific basis for decisionmaking.