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4 Environmental Analysis 4.5 Cultural Resources 4.5.1.2 Cultural Context The following is a brief overview of the cultural background relevant to the Project site and general vicinity. More detailed descriptions can be found in ethnographic studies, mission records, and major published sources, including Kroeber (1925), Heizer (1978), Moratto (2004), and Milliken et al. (2007). The following cultural context is excerpted from secondary sources, including the Tetra Tech technical report (Farrell and Kitchel 2022) conducted for this Project. Prehistoric Overview Paleo-Indian Period (13,500-10,500 Cal B.P.) During the Holocene, geological events, such as periodic episodes of erosion and deposition, altered, buried, or removed the Late Pleistocene landscape (Rosenthal et al. 2007). Evidence of this period comes from scattered surface locations in the southern portion of the basin. The Paleo- Indian period is characterized by basally thinned and fluted projectile points. The earliest known human presence in the San Joaquin Valley is indicated by artifacts uncovered at the Witt site (CA- KIN-32), located on the remnant south-southwestern shoreline of Tulare Lake. The Witt site has been classified as one of the only known paleontological sites in the central San Joaquin Valley region. During this period, hunters and gatherers crossed very large subsistence areas with extensive foraging ranges (Jones et al. 2003). This is supported by obsidian tracing and dating of projectile points from the Witt site. This evidence indicates that wide-ranging expeditions to distant areas were made for trade or direct procurement of obsidian sources from Napa Valley and those closer to Tulare Lake, but still representing rather lengthy forays east of the Sierra Nevada. During this period, foragers seem to have operated in small mobile groups with low population densities. Archaic Period The period marked by technological and substantial changes in subsistence and material culture is known as the Archaic Period. During this stage, prehistoric residents of the Central Valley developed into efficient hunter-gatherers who successfully exploited localized resource bases. Lower Archaic Period (10,500-7500 Cal B.P.) The environment at the end of the Pleistocene was significantly altered by climate change, which facilitated the production of alluvial fans and flood plains (Rosenthal et al. 2007). The Lower Archaic Period is characterized by isolated finds of stemmed points (similar to Borax Lake, Lake Mojave, Siler Lake, and Pinto wide stem types), stone crescents, and other distinctive, formalized, flaked stone artifacts(Rosenthal et al. 2007). Such artifacts were found further south of the current Project in the Central Valley at the Buena Vista Lake Site (CA KER-116; Fredrickson and Grossman 1977), and the shorelines of Tulare Lake at the Witt site. Faunal remains from the Buena Vista Lake site are limited but diverse, including freshwater fish, waterfowl, freshwater mussels (Margaritifera margaritifera), and artiodactyl bones. North of the Project area, archaeological sites that date to this period have been identified near the Los Vaqueros Reservoir in the hills east of Mount Diablo. Archaeological sites CA-CCO-696 and CA-CCO-637 are about 300 meters apart and both contain artifacts and burials. Charcoal identified under a milling slab at CA-CCO-696 yielded a date of 7920 calendar years before Griffith Energy Storage Project 4.5-3 Tetra Tech/SCH 2022120675 Draft Environmental Impact Report August 2023